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LT1533 Ultralow Noise 1A Switching Regulator
FEATURES
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DESCRIPTION
The LT (R)1533 is a new class of switching regulator designed to reduce conducted and radiated electromagnetic interference (EMI). Ultralow noise and EMI are achieved by providing user control of the output switch slew rates. Voltage and current slew rates can be independently programmed to optimize switcher harmonic content versus efficiency. The LT1533 can reduce high frequency harmonic power by as much as 40dB with only minor losses in efficiency. The LT1533 utilizes a dual output switch current mode architecture optimized for low noise topologies. The IC includes two 1A power switches along with all necessary oscillator, control and protection circuitry. Unique error amp circuitry can regulate both positive and negative voltages. The internal oscillator may be synchronized to an external clock for more accurate placement of switching harmonics. Protection features include cycle by cycle current limit protection, undervoltage lockout and thermal shutdown. Low minimum supply voltage and low supply current during shutdown make the LT1533 well suited for portable applications. The part may also be forced into a 50% duty cycle mode for unregulated applications. The LT1533 is available in the 16-pin narrow SO package.
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Greatly Reduced Conducted and Radiated EMI (<100VP-P in Typical Application) Low Switching Harmonic Content Independent Control of Switch Voltage and Current Slew Rates Two 1A Current Limited Power Switches Regulates Positive and Negative Voltages 20kHz to 250kHz Oscillator Frequency Easily Synchronized to External Clock Wide Input Voltage Range: 2.7V to 23V Low Shutdown Current: 12A Typical Easier Layout than with Conventional Switchers Outputs Can Be Forced to 50% Duty Cycle for Unregulated Applications
APPLICATIONS
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Precision Instrumentation Systems Isolated Supplies for Industrial Automation Medical Instruments Wireless Communications Single Board Data Acquisition Systems
, LTC and LT are registered trademarks of Linear Technology Corporation.
TYPICAL APPLICATION
Low Noise 5V to 12V Forward Push-Pull DC/DC Converter
5V
+
33F 11 3 820pF 4 5 16.9k 6 SHDN DUTY SYNC CT RT
14 VIN COL A COL B PGND LT1533 RVSL RCSL 15k 10 VC GND 9 NFB 8 FB 2
T1
1N4148
L1 300H
B
L2 33H C1 47F 16V
A
12V 150mA C2 33F 20V
12V Output Noise (BW = 100MHz)
1N4148 15 Note 1 16 13 12 7 15k 15k 21.5k, 1%
+
+
A 100V/DIV
B 2mV/DIV
1533 TA01
0.015F
1000pF
2.49k 1%
C1: SANYO OS-CON C2: AVX TPS TANTALUM L1: COILTRONICS CTX300-2 L2: COILCRAFT DT1608C-333 T1: COILTRONICS CTX02-13834 NOTE 1: 25nH TRACE INDUCTANCE OR COILCRAFT B07T
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<100VP-P
2s/DIV
1533 TA02
1
LT1533
ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGS
(Note 1)
PACKAGE/ORDER INFORMATION
TOP VIEW NC 1 COL A 2 DUTY 3 SYNC 4 CT 5 RT 6 FB 7 NFB 8 16 PGND 15 COL B 14 VIN 13 RVSL 12 RCSL 11 SHDN 10 VC 9 GND
Input Voltage (VIN) .................................................. 30V Switch Voltage (COL A, COL B) ............................... 30V SHDN Pin Voltage .................................................... 30V Feedback Pin Current ............................................ 10mA Negative Feedback Pin Current ............................ 10mA Storage Temperature Range ................. - 65C to 150C Maximum Junction Temperature ......................... 125C Operating Junction Temperature Range LT1533C ............................................... 0C to 100C LT1533I ............................................ - 40C to 100C Lead Temperature (Soldering, 10 sec).................. 300C
ORDER PART NUMBER LT1533CS LT1533IS
S PACKAGE 16-LEAD NARROW PLASTIC SO TJMAX = 125C, JA = 100C/ W
Consult factory for Military grade parts.
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS
VIN = 5V, VC = 0.9V, VFB = VREF. COL A, COL B, SHDN, NFB, DUTY pins open, unless otherwise noted.
SYMBOL VIN VIN(MIN) IVIN IVIN(OFF) VSHDN ISHDN VREF IFB FBREG VNFR INFR NFBREG PARAMETER Recommended Operating Range Minimum Input Voltage Supply Current Shutdown Supply Current Shutdown Threshold Shutdown Input Current Reference Voltage Feedback Input Current Reference Voltage Line Regulation Negative Feedback Reference Voltage Negative Feedback Input Current Negative Feedback Reference Voltage Line Regulation Measured at Feedback Pin
q
CONDITIONS
q q
MIN 2.7
TYP
MAX 23
UNITS V V mA A V A
Supply and Protection 2.55 12 12 0.4 0.8 -2 1.235 1.215 1.250 1.250 250 0.003 - 2.550 - 37 - 2.500 - 25 0.002 0.05 1.265 1.275 900 0.03 - 2.420 2.7 18 30 1.2
2.7V VIN 23V, RVSL, RCSL, RT = 17k 2.7V VIN 23V, VSHDN = 0V 2.7V VIN 23V
q q q
Error Amplifiers V V nA %/V V A %/V
VFB = VREF 2.7V VIN 23V Measured at Negative Feedback Pin with Feedback Pin Open VNFB = VNFR 2.7V VIN 23V
q q q q q
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LT1533
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS
VIN = 5V, VC = 0.9V, VFB = VREF. COL A, COL B, SHDN, NFB, DUTY pins open, unless otherwise noted.
SYMBOL gm IESK IESRC VCLH VCLL AV f MAX f SYNC RSYNC VFBfs DCMAX tIBL BV RON ILIM(MAX) PARAMETER Error Amplifier Transconductance Error Amplifier Sink Current Error Amplifier Source Current Error Amplifier Clamp Voltage Error Amplifier Clamp Voltage Error Amplifier Voltage Gain Maximum Switch Frequency Synchronization Frequency Range SYNC Pin Input Resistance FB Pin Threshold for Frequency Shift Maximum Switch Duty Cycle Switch Current Limit Blanking Time Output Switch Breakdown Voltage Output Switch-On Resistance Maximum Current Limit Short-Circuit Current Limit 2.7V VIN 23V ICOL A or ICOL B = 0.75A Duty Cycle = 15% Duty Cycle = 40%
q q
CONDITIONS IC = 25A
q
MIN 1100 700 120 120
TYP 1500 200 200 1.33 0.1
MAX 1900 2300 350 350
UNITS mho mho A A V V V/V kHz
VFB = VREF + 150mV, VC = 0.9V, VSHDN = 1V VFB = VREF - 150mV, VC = 0.9V, VSHDN = 1V High Clamp, VFB = 1V Low Clamp, VFB = 1.5V
q q
180
250 250
Oscillator and Sync fOSC = 250kHz 5% Reduction from Nominal DUTY Pin Open, RVSL = RCSL = 4.9k, fOSC = 25kHz DUTY Pin Grounded, Forced 50% Duty Cycle
q q
375 40 0.4 44 45.5 50.0 200 25 1 0.8 30 0.5 1.25 16 0.35 0.85 1.8
kHz k V % % ns V A A mA/A
Output Switches
IIN/ISW Supply Current Increase During Switch-On Time VDUTYTH VSLEWR VSLEWF ISLEWR ISLEWF DUTY Pin Threshold Output Voltage Slew Rising Edge Output Voltage Slew Falling Edge Output Current Slew Rising Edge Output Current Slew Falling Edge Either A or B, RVSL, RCSL = 17k Either A or B, RVSL, RCSL = 17k Either A or B, RVSL, RCSL = 17k Either A or B, RVSL, RCSL = 17k Slew Control
11 14.5 1.3 1.3
V/s V/s A/s A/s
The q denotes specifications that apply over the full operating temperature range. Note 1: Absolute Maximum Ratings are those values beyond which the life of a device may be impaired.
Note 2: The LT1533 is designed to operate over the junction temperature range of - 4 0C to 125C, but is neither tested nor guaranteed beyond 0C to 100C for C grade or - 40C to 100C for I grade.
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LT1533 TYPICAL PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
Minimum Input Voltage vs Temperature
2.70
0 -50
2.65
INPUT VOLTAGE (V)
SWITCH VOLTAGE (V)
ILIM (mA)
2.60
2.55
2.50
2.45 -50 -25
25 50 75 100 125 150 0 JUNCTION TEMPERATURE (C)
1533 G01
Feedback Voltage and Input Current vs Temperature
1.30 1.29 1.28
FEEDBACK VOLTAGE (V)
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK VOLTAGE (V)
-2.40 -2.45 -2.50 -2.55 -2.60 -2.65 -2.70 -50 -25 0 INFB VNFB
30
TRANSCONDUCTANCE (mho)
1.27 1.26 1.25 1.24 1.23 1.22 1.21 1.20 -50 -25 0 IFB VFB
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 TEMPERATURE (C)
1533 G04
Switching Frequency vs Feedback Pin Voltage
120 SWITCHING FREQUENCY (% TYPICAL)
ERROR AMPLIFIER OUTPUT (A)
100 80 60 40 20 0 0 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.2 FEEDBACK PIN VOLTAGE (V) 0.6
1533 G07
200 100 0 -100 -200 -300 -400
25C
VC PIN VOLTAGE (V)
4
UW
Change in ILIM vs DC
0.7 0.6
25C 125C
Switch Voltage Drop
125C
-100 -150 -200 -250 -300
0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 85C 25C
0
10
20 30 DUTY CYCLE (%)
40
50
1533 G02
0
0.2
0.4 0.8 0.6 SWITCH CURRENT (A)
1.0
1533 G03
Negative Feedback Voltage and Input Current vs Temperature
2.0 1.8
FEEDBACK INPUT CURRENT (A)
Error Amplifier Transconductance vs Temperature
35
2000 1900 1800 1700 1600 1500 1400 1300 1200 1100 1000 -50 -25 0 25 50 75 100 125 150
1533 G06
-2.30 -2.35
gm = IVC /VFB
1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
NFB INPUT CURRENT (A)
25
20
15 25 50 75 100 125 150 TEMPERATURE (C)
1533 G05
TEMPERATURE (C)
Error Amplifier Output Current
500 400 300 -40C 125C 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
VC Pin Threshold and Clamp Voltage vs Temperature
VC PIN CLAMP VOLTAGE
VC PIN THRESHOLD
-500 -400 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 FEEDBACK PIN VOLTAGE FROM NOMINAL (mV)
1533 G08
0 -50 -25
0
25
50
75
100 125
1533 G09
TEMPERATURE (C)
LT1533
PIN FUNCTIONS
COL A, COL B (Pins 2, 15): These are the output collectors of the power switches. Their emitters return to PGND through a common sense resistor. COL A and COL B are alternately turned on out of phase. Large currents flow into these pins so it is desirable to keep external trace lengths short to minimize radiation. The collectors can be tied together for simple boost applications. DUTY (Pin 3): Tying the DUTY pin to ground will force the outputs to switch with a 50% duty cycle. The DUTY pin must float if not used. SYNC (Pin 4): The SYNC pin can be used to synchronize the oscillator to an external clock (see Oscillator Sync in Applications Information section for more details). The SYNC pin may either be floated or tied to ground if not used. CT (Pin 5): The oscillator capacitor pin is used in conjunction with RT to set the oscillator frequency. For RT = 16.9k, CT(NF) = 129/fOSC(kHz) RT (Pin 6): The oscillator resistor pin is used to set the charge and discharge currents of the oscillator capacitor. The nominal value is 16.9k. It is possible to adjust this resistance 25% to get a more accurate oscillator frequency. FB (Pin 7): The feedback pin is used for positive voltage sensing and oscillator frequency shifting during start-up and short-circuit conditions. It is the inverting input to the error amplifier. The noninverting input of this amplifier connects internally to a 1.25V reference. This pin should be left open if not used. NFB (Pin 8): The negative voltage feedback pin is used for sensing a negative output voltage. The pin is connected to the inverting input of the negative feedback amplifier through a 100k source resistor. The negative feedback amplifier provides a gain of - 0.5 to the feedback amplifier. The nominal regulation point would be - 2.5V on NFB. This pin should be left open if not used. GND (Pin 9): Signal Ground. The internal error amplifier, negative feedback amplifier, oscillator, slew control circuitry and the bandgap reference are referred to this ground. Keep the connection to the feedback divider and VC compensation network free of large ground currents. VC (Pin 10): The compensation pin is used for frequency compensation and current limiting. It is the output of the error amplifier and the input of the current comparator. Loop frequency compensation can be performed with an RC network connected from the VC pin to ground. SHDN (Pin 11): The shutdown pin is used for disabling the switcher. Grounding this pin will disable all internal circuitry. Normally this output can be tied high (to VIN) or may be left floating. RCSL (Pin 12): A resistor to ground sets the current slew rate for the collectors A and B. The minimum resistor value is 3.9k and the maximum value is 68k. Current slew will be approximately: ISLEW(A/s) = 33/RCSL(k) RVSL (Pin 13): A resistor to ground sets the voltage slew rate for the collectors A and B. The minimum resistor value is 3.9k and the maximum value is 68k. Voltage slew will be approximately: VSLEW(V/s) = 220/RVSL(k) VIN (Pin 14): Input Supply Pin. Bypass this pin with a 4.7F low ESR capacitor. When VIN is below 2.55V the part will go into undervoltage lockout where it will stop output switching and pull the VC pin low. PGND (Pin 16): Power Switch Ground. This ground comes from the emitters of the power switches. In normal operation this pin should have approximately 25nH inductance to ground. This can be done by trace inductance (approximately 1") or with wire or a specific inductive component. This inductance ensures stability in the current slew control loop during turn-off. Too much inductance (>50nH) may produce oscillation on the output voltage slew edges.
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LT1533
BLOCK DIAGRA
VC LDO REGULATOR
+ -
100k NFB NEGATIVE FEEDBACK AMP 50k INTERNAL VCC
FB
+
1.25V
RT OSCILLATOR CT SYNC T FF BK GND DUTY
1533 BD
OPERATIO
In noise sensitive applications, switching regulators tend to be ruled out as a power supply option due to their propensity for generating unwanted noise. When switching supplies are required due to efficiency or input/output voltage constraints, great pains must be taken to work around the noise generated by a typical supply. These steps may include precise synchronization of the power supply oscillator to an external clock, synchronizing the rest of the circuit to the power supply oscillator, or halting power supply switching during noise sensitive operations. The LT1533 greatly simplifies the task of eliminating supply noise by enabling the design of an inherently low noise switching regulator power supply. The LT1533 is a fixed frequency, current mode switching regulator with unique circuitry to control the voltage and current slew rates of the output switches. Slew control capability provides much greater control over power sup-
6
+
gm ERROR AMP
-
+
-
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SHDN VIN PGND COL A COL B
+ -
OUTPUT DRIVERS
RVSL SLEW CONTROL COMP RCSL
S FF R
Q
Q
QB
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ply components that can create conducted and radiated electromagnetic interference. The current mode control provides excellent AC and DC line regulation and simplifies loop compensation. Current Mode Control A switching cycle begins with an oscillator discharge pulse which resets the RS flip-flop, turning on one of the output drivers (refer to Block Diagram). The switch current is sensed across an internal resistor and the resulting voltage is amplified and compared to the output of the error amplifier (VC pin). The driver is turned off once the output of the current sense amplifier exceeds the voltage on the VC pin. The toggle flip-flop ensures that the two output drivers are enabled on alternate clock cycles. Internal slope compensation is provided to ensure stability under high duty cycle conditions.
LT1533
OPERATIO
Output regulation is obtained using the error amp to set the switch current trip point. The error amp is a transconductance amplifier that integrates the difference between the feedback output voltage and an internal 1.25V reference. The output of the error amp adjusts the switch current trip point to provide the required load current at the desired regulated output voltage. This method of controlling current rather than voltage provides faster input transient response, cycle by cycle current limiting for better output switch protection and greater ease in compensating the feedback loop. The VC pin serves three different purposes. It is used for loop compensation, current limit adjustment and soft starting. During normal operation the VC voltage will be between 0.2V and 1.33V. An external clamp may be used for lowering the current limit. A capacitor coupled to an external clamp can be used for soft starting. The negative voltage feedback amplifier allows for direct regulation of negative output voltages. The voltage on the NFB pin gets amplified by a gain of - 0.5 and driven onto the FB input, i.e., the NFB pin regulates to - 2.5V while the amplifier output internally drives the FB pin to 1.25V as in normal operation. The negative feedback amplifier input impedance is 100k (typ) referred to ground. Slew Control Control of output voltage and current slew rates is done via two feedback loops. One loop controls the output switch collector voltage dV/dt and the other loop controls the emitter current dI/dt. Output slew control is achieved by comparing the currents generated by these two slewing events to currents created by external resistors RVSL and
APPLICATIONS INFORMATION
Reducing EMI from switching power supplies has traditionally invoked fear in designers. Many switchers are designed solely on efficiency and as such produce waveforms filled with high frequency harmonics that then propagate through the rest of the power supply. The LT1533 provides control over two of the more important variables for controlling EMI with switching inductive loads: switch voltage slew rate and switch current slew rate. The use of this part will reduce noise and EMI over conventional switch mode controllers. Because these variables are under control, a supply built with this part will exhibit far less tendency to create EMI and less chance of wandering into problems during production.
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RCSL. The two control loops are combined internally to provide a smooth transition from current slew control to voltage slew control. Internal Regulator Most of the control circuitry operates from an internal 2.4V low dropout regulator that is powered from VIN. The internal low dropout design allows VIN to vary from 2.7V to 23V with virtually no change in device performance. When the part is put into shutdown, the internal regulator is turned off, leaving only a small (12A typ) current drain from VIN. Protection Features There are three modes of protection in the LT1533. The first is overcurrent limit. This is achieved via the clamping action of the VC pin. The second is thermal shutdown that disables both output drivers and pulls the VC pin low in the event of excessive chip temperature. The third is undervoltage lockout that also disables both outputs and pulls the VC pin low whenever VIN drops below 2.5V. 50% Duty Cycle Mode Since the LT1533 has dual out-of-phase outputs, it is ideal for driving push-pull transformers. For simple DC transformer applications, the part can be forced into a 50% duty cycle mode using the DUTY pin. Grounding the DUTY pin will override the internal control circuitry and force the outputs to switch with a 50% duty cycle at one-half the oscillator frequency. Slew control also applies in the 50% duty cycle mode.
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LT1533
APPLICATIONS INFORMATION
It is beyond the scope of this data sheet to get into EMI fundamentals. AN70 contains much information concerning noise in switching regulators and should be consulted. Oscillator Frequency The oscillator determines the switching frequency and therefore the fundamental positioning of all harmonics. The use of good quality external components is important to ensure oscillator frequency stability. The oscillator is a sawtooth design. A current defined by external resistor RT is used to charge and discharge the capacitor CT. The discharge rate is approximately ten times the charge rate. By allowing the user to have control over both components, trimming of oscillator frequency can be more easily achieved. The external capacitance CT is chosen by: CT(nF) = 2180/[fOSC(kHz) * RT(k)] where fOSC is the desired oscillator frequency in kHz. For RT equal to 16.9k, this simplifies to: CT(nF) = 129/fOSC(kHz), e.g., CT = 1.29nF for fOSC = 100kHz Nominally RT should be 16.9k. Since it sets up current, its temperature coefficient should be selected to compliment the capacitor. Ideally, both should have low temperature coefficients. When the DUTY pin is high or floating, the outputs will be turned off during the discharge time of the oscillator. Due to slew rate control, turning off the outputs does not produce immediate transitions. Turn-off will require the current to ramp down and the switch voltage to ramp up. If the DUTY pin is grounded, then the outputs will turn on or off starting with the clock discharge. If the FB pin is below 0.4V the oscillator discharge time will increase, causing the oscillation frequency to decrease by approximately 6:1. This feature helps minimize power dissipation during start-up and short-circuit conditions. Oscillator frequency is important for noise reduction in two ways: 1) the lower the oscillator frequency the lower the harmonics of waveforms are, making it easier to filter Oscillator Sync If a more precise frequency is desired (e.g., to accurately place harmonics) the oscillator can be synchronized to an external clock. Set the RC timing components for an oscillator frequency 10% lower than the desired sync frequency. Drive the SYNC pin with a square wave (with greater than 1.4V amplitude). The rising edge of the sync square wave will initiate clock discharge. The sync pulse should have a minimum pulse width of 0.5s. Be careful in sync'ing to frequencies much different from the part since the internal oscillator charge slope determines slope compensation. It would be possible to get into subharmonic oscillation if the sync doesn't allow for the charge cycle of the capacitor to initiate slope compensation. In general, this will not be a problem until the sync frequency is greater than 1.5 times the oscillator free-run frequency. Slew Rate Setting Setting the voltage and current slew rates is easy. External resistors to ground on the RVSL and RCSL pins determine the slew rates. Determining what slew rate to use is more difficult. There are several ways to approach the problem. First, start by putting a 50k resistor pot with a 3.9k series resistance on each pin. In general, the next step will be to monitor the noise that you are concerned with. Be careful with measurement technique (consult AN70). Keep probe ground leads very short. Usually it will be desirable to keep the voltage and current slew resistors approximately the same. There are circumstances where a better optimization can be found by adjusting each separately, but as these values are separated further, a loss of independence of control will occur. Starting from the lowest resistor setting adjust the pots until the noise level meets your guidelines. Note that them, 2) the oscillator will control the placement of output frequency harmonics which can aid in specific problems where you might be trying to avoid a certain frequency bandwidth that is used for detection elsewhere.
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LT1533
APPLICATIONS INFORMATION
slower slewing waveforms will dissipate more power so that efficiency will drop. You can also monitor this as you make your slew adjustment by measuring input and output voltage and current. It is possible to use a single slew setting resistor. In this case the RVSL and RCSL pins are tied together. A resistor with a value of 2k to 34k (one half the individual resistors) can then be tied from these pins to ground. Emitter Inductance A small inductance in the power ground minimizes a potential dip in the output current falling edge that can occur under fast slewing, 25nH is usually sufficient. Greater than 50nH may produce unwanted oscillations in the voltage output. The inductance can be created by wire or board trace with the equivalent of one inch of straight length. A spiral board trace will require less length. Positive Output Voltage Setting
1533 F02
Sensing of a positive output voltage is usually done using a resistor divider from the output to the FB pin. The positive input to the error amp is connected internally to a 1.25V bandgap reference. The FB pin will regulate to this voltage.
R1 FB PIN R2
1533 F01
VOUT
Figure 1
Referring to Figure 1, R1 is determined by:
V R1 = R2 OUT - 1 1.25
The FB bias current represents a small error and can usually be ignored for values of R1|| R2 up to 10k. One word of caution. Sometimes a feedback zero is added to the control loop by placing a capacitor across R1 above. If the feedback capacitively pulls the FB pin above the
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internal regulator voltage (2.4V typ), output regulation may be disrupted. A series resistance with the feedback pin can eliminate this potential problem. Negative Output Voltage Setting Negative output voltage can be sensed using the NFB pin. In this case regulation will occur when the NFB pin is at - 2.5V. The input bias current for the NFB is -25A (INFB) which needs to be accounted for in setting up the divider. Referring to Figure 2, R1 is chosen such that:
VOUT - 2.5 R1 = R2 2.5 + R2 * 25A
R1 NFB PIN INFB R2 -VOUT
Figure 2
A suggested value for R2 is 2.5k. The NFB pin is normally left open if the FB pin is being used. Dual Polarity Output Voltage Sensing Certain applications may benefit from sensing both positive and negative output voltages. When doing this each output voltage resistor divider is individually set as previously described. When both FB and NFB pins are used, the LT1533 will act to prevent either output from going beyond its set output voltage. The highest output (lightest load) will dominate control of the regulator. This technique would prevent either output from going unregulated high at no load. However, this technique will also compromise output load regulation. Shutdown If the shutdown pin is pulled low, the regulator will turn off. The supply current will be reduced to less than 20A.
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LT1533
APPLICATIONS INFORMATION
Thermal Considerations Computing power dissipation for this IC requires careful attention to detail. Reduced output slewing causes the part to dissipate more power than would occur with fast edges. However, much improvement in noise can be produced with modest decrease in supply efficiency. Power dissipation is a function of topology, input voltage, switch current and slew rates. It is impractical to come up with an all-encompassing formula. It is therefore recommended that package temperature be measured in each application. The part has an internal thermal shutdown to prevent device destruction, but this should not replace careful thermal design. 1. Dissipation due to input current: where I is the ripple current in the switch, RCSL and RVSL are the slew resistors and fOSC is the oscillator frequency. Power dissipation PD is the sum of these three terms. Die junction temperature is then computed as: TJ = TAMB + (PD)(JA) where TAMB is ambient temperature and JA is the package thermal resistance. For the 16-pin SO JA is 100C/W. For example, with fOSC = 40kHz, VIN = 10V, 0.4A average current and 0.1A of ripple, the maximum duty cycle is 44%. Assume slew resistors are both 17k and VSAT is 0.26V, then: PD = 0.176W + 0.094W + 0.158W = 0.429W In an S16 package the die junction temperature would be 43C above ambient. Frequency Compensation Loop frequency compensation is accomplished by way of a series RC network on the output of the error amplifier (VC pin). Referring to Figure 3, the main pole is formed by capacitor CVC and the output impedance of the error amplifier (approximately 400k). The series resistor RVC creates a "zero" which improves loop stability and transient response. A second capacitor CVC2, typically onetenth the size of the main compensation capacitor, is sometimes used to reduce the switching frequency ripple on the VC pin. VC pin ripple is caused by output voltage ripple attenuated by the output divider and multiplied by the error amplifier. Without the second capacitor, VC pin ripple is:
VC PIN RIPPLE =
I PVIN = VIN11mA + 60
where I is the average switch current. 2. Dissipation due to the drivers saturation: PVSAT = (VSAT)(I)(DCMAX) where VSAT is the output saturation voltage which is approximately 0.1 + (0.4)(I), DCMAX is the maximum duty cycle. 3. Dissipation due to output slew using approximations for slew rates:
2 2 2V V I2 + I I VIN - SAT IN 4 4 PSLEW = RCSL + RVSL fOSC 9 220 109 33 10
()
()
()
()
()
(
Note if VSAT and I are small with respect to VIN and I, then:
VIN R VSL I RCSL PSLEW = + fOSC VIN I 9 9 33 10 220 10
()( ) ( )( () ()
) ( )( )()
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)( )
(1. 25)(VRIPPLE)(gm)(RVC)
VOUT
where VRIPPLE = Output ripple (VP-P) gm = Error amplifier transconductance RVC = Series resistor on VC pin VOUT = DC output voltage
LT1533
APPLICATIONS INFORMATION
RVC 2k CVC 0.01F VC PIN CVC2 4.7nF
1533 F03
Figure 3
To prevent irregular switching, VC pin ripple should be kept below 50mVP-P. Worst-case VC pin ripple occurs at maximum output load current and will also be increased if poor quality (high ESR) output capacitors are used. The addition of a 0.0047F capacitor on the VC pin reduces switching frequency ripple to only a few millivolts. A low value for RVC will also reduce VC pin ripple, but loop phase margin may be inadequate. Magnetics Design of magnetics is dependent on topology. The following details the design of the magnetics for a push-pull converter. In this converter the transformer usually stores little energy. The following equations should be considered as the starting point to building a prototype.
T1 1:N VIN Q1A Q1B
1533 F04
DS1
VSEC
LO
+
DS2 CO
Figure 4
The following definitions will be used: VIN = Input supply voltage VSW = Switch-on voltage VOUT = Desired output voltage IOUT = Output current f = Oscillator frequency VF = Forward drop of the rectifier Duty cycle is the major defining equation for this topology. Note that the output L and C basically filter the chopped voltage so duty cycle controls output voltage. N is the
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turns ratio of the transformer. The turns ratio must be large enough to ensure that the transformer can put out a voltage equal to the output voltage plus the diode under minimum input conditions.
N=
VOUT + VF 2 * DCMAX VIN(MIN) - VSW
(
)
DCMAX is the maximum duty cycle of each driver with respect to the entire cycle which consists of two periods (Q1A on and Q1B on). So the effective duty cycle is 2 * DCMAX. The controller, in general, determines maximum duty cycle. A 44% maximum duty cycle is a guaranteed value for this part.
Some Common Turns Ratios
VIN 5 10% 5 10% 5 10% VOUT 12 15 3.3 N 3.6 4.4 1.1
Remember to add sufficient margin in the turns ratio to account for IR drops in the transformer windings, worstcase diode forward drop (VF) and switch-on voltage (VSW). There are a number of ways to choose the inductance value for LO. We suggest as a starting point that LO be selected such that the converter is continuous at IOUT(MAX)/4. If your minimum IOUT is higher than this, or you are operating at low currents such that the IC and components can handle higher peak currents, then use a higher number. Continuous operation occurs when the current in the inductor never goes to zero. Discontinuous operation occurs when the inductor current drops to zero before the start of the next cycle and can occur with small inductors and light loads. There is nothing inherently bad about discontinuous operation, however, the converter control and operation is somewhat different. The inductor is smaller for discontinuous operation but the peak currents in the switch, the transformer, the diodes, inductor and capacitor will be higher. But for low power situations these may not present a big constraint.
VOUT
11
LT1533
APPLICATIONS INFORMATION
For continuous operation the inductor ripple current must be less than twice the output current. The worst case for this is at maximum input (lowest DC) but we will evaluate at nominal input since the IOUT/4 is somewhat arbitrary. Note when both inputs are off, inductor current splits between outputs and the diode common goes to 0V. Looking at the inductor current during off time, output ripple current is: IOUT = 2 * IOUT(MIN) IOUT(MIN) = IOUT(MAX)/4 and the peak current in the switch is: ISW(PEAK) = N * ILMAX + IMAG This should be less than the 1A current limit. In the push-pull converter the maximum switch voltage will be 2 * (VIN - VSW) plus a small amount (10%) for leakage spikes. Because voltage is slew-controlled, the spikes will be less than normal. So, maximum switch voltage is: VSW(MAX) = 2 * VIN * 1.1 This should be below the maximum rated switch voltage. So, given the turns ratio, primary inductance and current, the transformer can be designed. As an example: VIN = 5V 10%, VOUT = 12V, IOUT(MAX) = 150mA, VSW = 0.5V, VF = 0.5V, f = 50kHz,
N=
LO =
VOUT 1 - 2 * DCNOM IOUT * f
(
)
The inductance of the transformer primary should be such that LO, when reflected into the primary, dominates the input current. In other words, we want the magnetizing current of the transformer small with respect to the current going through the transformer to LO. In general, then, the inductance of the primary should be at least five times that of LO. This ensures that most of the power will be passed through the transformer to the load. It also increases the power capability of the converter and reduces the peak currents that the switch will see. LPRI = 5 * LO /N2 If the magnetizing current is below 100mA, then a smaller LO can be used. With the value of LO set, the ripple in the inductor is:
IOUT =
VOUT 1 - 2 * DC LO * f
(
)
However, the peak inductor current is evaluated at maximum load and maximum input voltage (minimum DC).
ILMAX = IOUT(MAX ) +
IOUT(MAX ) 2
The magnetizing ripple current can be shown to be: V +V IMAG = OUT F N * LPRI * f
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(2 * 0.44)(4.5 - 0.5)
12 + 0.5
= 3.55
Round up so N = 3.6. For continuous operation at IOUT(MIN) = IOUT(MAX)/4, inductor ripple is:
IOUT = 2 *
150mA = 75mA 4
The duty cycle for nominal input is:
DCNOM = =
(
12 + 0.5
(2 * N)(VIN(NOM) - VSW) ( )
= 38.6%
VOUT + VF
2 * 3.6 5 - 0.5
)(
LO(MIN) =
12 1 - 2 * 38.6% 75mA * 50kHz
) = 730H
Off-the-shelf components can be used for this inductor. Say we found an 800H inductor (Coiltronics CTX200-1 for instance).
LT1533
APPLICATIONS INFORMATION
Output ripple current at maximum input (DC = 34.7%) is:
IOUT =
12 1 - 2 * 34.7% 800H * 50kHz
(
) = 92mA
The maximum inductor current is:
ILMAX = 150mA + 92mA = 196mA 2
Primary inductance should be greater than: LPRI = 5 * 800H 3.62 = 309H
The magnetizing ripple current is approximately:
12 + 0.5 IMAG = = 225mA 3.6 * 309H * 50kHz
Peak switch current is: ISW(PEAK) = 3.6 * 196mA + 225mA = 930mA which is less than the 1A maximum switch current. Note that you can discern your magnetizing ripple by looking at the reflected inductance ripple and subtracting the switch current ripple. IMAG = N * IL - ISW With knowledge of turns ratio and primary inductance along with volt/sec requirements (to prevent saturation) the transformer can be designed. Transformers are available from Coiltronics for some standard applications. Figure 5 lists them. Variations are available from Coiltronics at 561-241-7876. Also, see Linear Technology's Application Notes AN19, AN44 and AN70 for further information about magnetics. Capacitors Correct choice of input and output capacitors can be very important to low noise switcher performance. Push-pull topologies and other low noise topologies will in general have continuous currents which reduce the requirements
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NOMINAL INPUT VOLTAGE 5V 5V 5V 5V 5V 5V
NOMINAL OUTPUT VOLTAGE AFTER LINEAR REGULATOR 12V 12V 15V 15V 12V 12V A
OUTPUT POWER 1.5W 3.0W 1.5W 3.0W 1.5W 10W
COILTRONICS PART NUMBER CTX02-13716-X1 CTX02-13665-X1 CTX02-13713-X1 CTX02-13664-X1 CTX02-13834-X3* CTX02-13949-X1 B
CONNECTION DIAGRAM A A B B A A
2 PRIMARY A 3 4 PRIMARY B 5
12 SECTION A 10 9 SECTION B 7
2 PRIMARY A 3 4 PRIMARY B 5
12 SECTION A 10 9 SECTION B 7 TIE OUTPUT COMMON TO THIS POINT
= TIED TOGETHER *=HIGH TURNS RATIO VERSION OF CTX-02-13716-X1. ACCOMMODATES LOW SUPPLY VOLTAGES OR HIGH DROPOUT REGULATORS
1533 F05
Figure 5. Transformers for Typical Applications
for capacitance. However, noise depends more on the ESR of the capacitors. Input capacitors must also withstand surges that occur during the switching of some types of loads. Some solid tantalum capacitors can fail under these surge conditions. Design Note 95 offers more information but the following is a brief summary of capacitor types and attributes. Aluminum Electrolytic: Low cost and higher voltage but in general don't use with this part because of high ESR and poor high frequency performance. Specialty Polymer Aluminum: Panasonic has come out with their series CD capacitors. While they are only available for voltages below 16V, they have very low ESR and good surge capability. Solid Tantalum: Small size and low impedance. Typically available for voltages below 50V. Possible problem with surge currents (AVX TPS line addresses this issue). OS-CON: Lower impedance than aluminum but only available for 25V or less. Form factor may be a problem. Sometimes their very low ESR can cause loop stability problems.
13
LT1533
APPLICATIONS INFORMATION
Ceramic: Generally used for high frequency and high voltage bypass. If all ceramic capacitors are used, they can have such a low ESR as to cause loop stability problems. Often they can resonate with their ESL before ESR becomes effective. Input Capacitor The requirements for the input capacitor are less stringent for this part. Input current ripple is lower because of the push-pull action and low noise features of the part. However, the input capacitor should have low ESR at high frequencies since this will be an important factor concerning how much conducted noise is created. Values of input capacitor will typically be in the 1F to 22F range with ESR under 0.3. The input capacitor can see a high surge current when a battery of high capacitance source is connected "live." Some solid tantalum capacitors can fail under this condition. Several manufacturers have developed a line of solid tantalum capacitors specially tested for surge capability (e.g., AVX TPS series). However, even these units may fail if the input voltage approaches the maximum voltage rating of the capacitor. AVX recommends derating capacitor voltage by 2:1 for high surge applications. Output Filter Capacitor Output capacitors are usually chosen on the basis of ESR since this will determine output ripple. Typical required ESR will be in the 0.05 to 0.3 range. The specific value for capacitance will depend on topology. A typical output capacitor is an AVX type TPS, 22F and 25V with a guaranteed ESR less than 0.2. To further reduce ESR, multiple output capacitors can be used in parallel. The value in microfarads is not particularly important. A small 22F tantalum capacitor will have high ESR and higher output voltage ripple. Table 1 shows some typical surface mount capacitors.
C CASE B CASE
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Table 1
SIZE E CASE D CASE CAPACITOR AVX TPS, Sprague 593D AVX TAJ AVX TPS, Sprague 593D AVX TAJ Panasonic CD AVX TPS AVX TAJ AVX TAJ ESR (MAX ) 0.1 to 0.3 0.7 to 0.9 0.1 to 0.3 0.9 to 2.0 0.05 to 0.18 0.2 (Typ) 1.8 to 3.0 2.5 to 10
Switching Diodes In general, switching diodes should be Schottky diodes such as 1N5818 or MBR130 (1A/30V). Low output current applications may use 1N4148 switching diodes. Unregulated Applications The LT1533 can be used to create a low noise "DC transformer" unregulated power supply. DC transformers are open-loop switching regulators where the output voltage is controlled by the turns ratio of the transformer. A DC transformer provides a low cost isolated supply. For such applications, the DUTY pin of the LT1533 should be grounded. This will force the outputs into a 50% on, 50% off mode. Note that because of slew control there will be some variance from 50%. Figure 6 shows a 5V to 12V DC transformer. One concern with this type of application is having both switch outputs transition at the same time. This can cause both primary side windings to have positive EMF added to the winding, causing the current to run away. Since this part controls slew rate this won't happen. It is possible to see slightly increased total current draw when both drivers are on, but this will be controlled and observable. Since the outputs share a common sense resistor, the outputs will turn off when the total current in both exceeds the limit set by the VC pin. The FB pin should be DC biased between 0.7V and 1.2V to prevent frequency shifting from occurring. This also ensures that the VC pin is set to its upper clamp, providing peak output current.
LT1533
APPLICATIONS INFORMATION
The slew rate adjustment should be made by putting a 3.9k resistor in series with a 50k pot on the RVSL and RCSL pins (or a 2k resistor in series with a 25k pot with both pins tied together). Monitor output noise or other system signal while increasing the resistance until desired noise performance is reached. System efficiency can also be monitored. While this topology is not as quiet as a push-pull converter, it can provide a low cost, isolated power supply that has decreased noise relative to other solutions. More Help AN70 contains much information concerning LT1533 applications and measurement of noise and should be consulted. A 5V to 12V demo board is also available (DC173). AN19 and AN29 also have general knowledge concerning switching regulators. Our Application Department is always ready to lend a helping hand.
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
5V 14 VIN COL A PGND LT1533 3 SHDN 11 4 DUTY SHDN SYNC GND RT 9 6 COL B RCSL RVSL CT VC NFB FB 5 10 8 7 43k 5V 10k 3300pF 18k 15 12 13 4k TO 68k 68k BAT85 1 3.3 2 16 25nH* BAT85 1 22F 10V T1**
Figure 6. 5V to 12V DC Transformer
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1N5819 x4
L1 100H
8
LT1121CS8 3 2 R4 150k 150k 5 4
1 332k
12V 80mA 2.2F 25V
3.3
22F 35V
22F 35V L2 100H 1, 2, 7, 8
324k
2.2F 25V -12V 80mA
1533 F06
LT1175CS8
3
* BEAD OR PCB TRACE ** COILTRONICS CTX02 13716-X1 L1, L2: COILCRAFT DT1608C-104
15
LT1533
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
Low Noise 5V to -12V Forward Push-Pull Converter. Output Noise Is Below 100V. Noise Performance Is Identical to Positive Output Version. See AN70 for Details
5V
+
4.7F 11 3 3300pF 4 5 18k 6 SHDN DUTY SYNC CT RT
COL B PGND LT1533 RVSL RCSL
L1 16 13 12 8 2.4k 1% 15k 15k 9.6k 1%
10 0.01F
VC
GND 9
NFB FB 7
1533 TA03
L1: 22nH INDUCTOR. COILCRAFT B-07T TYPICAL, TRACE INDUCTANE OR BEAD L2, L3: COILTRONICS CTX100-3 T1: COILTRONICS CTX02-13665-X1
Electronic Equivalent of 9V Battery Operates from Three NiCd Cells. Output Noise Is Below 100V. See AN70 for Details
2.7V TO 4V (3 NiCd BATTERIES)
+
4.7F 11 3 3300pF 4 5 18k 6 SHDN DUTY SYNC CT RT
14 VIN COL A COL B PGND LT1533 RVSL RCSL 10 0.01F VC GND 9 NFB 8 FB 2
T1
1N4148
L1 100H
9V
L3 OPTIONAL FOR 100H LOWEST RIPPLE
(
1N4148 15 L2 16 13 12 7 3.48k 1% 15k 15k
+
47F
+
47F
21.5k 1%
1533 TA04
L1, L3: COILTRONICS CTX100-3 L2: 22nH TRACE INDUCTANCE, FERRITE BEAD OR INDUCTOR COILCRAFT B-07T TYPICAL T1: CTX02-13665-X1
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+
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14 VIN COL A 2
T1
1N4148
L2 100H
-12V
L3 OPTIONAL FOR 100H LOWEST RIPPLE
(
)
1N4148 15 47F 47F
)
LT1533
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
Hysteretic Loop Lowers Quiescent Current to 100A While Maintaining Low Output Noise. See AN70 for Details
2.7V TO 4V (3 Ni-Cd BATTERIES)
+
4.7F 11 3 3300pF 4 5 18k 6 SHDN DUTY SYNC CT RT
RCSL 10 0.01F VC GND 9 NFB 8 FB
12 15k 7
C1 LTC1440
10pF 1.18V VZ INTERNAL TO LTC1440
L1, L3: COILTRONICS CTX100-3 L2: 22nH TRACE INDUCTANCE, FERRITE BEAD OR INDUCTOR COILCRAFT B-07T TYPICAL T1: CTX02-13665-X1
A 50V Output Low Noise Regulator. Cascoded Bipolar Transistors Accommodate 60V Transformer Swings, Permitting 24V (20VIN to 30VIN) Powered Operation. See AN70 for Details
68 0.003F 3.3k MUR110 Q1 10k Q3 1N4148 1N752 5.6V 11 3 SHDN DUTY SYNC CT LT1533 6 RT RVSL RCSL 10 0.01F VC GND 9 NFB 8 FB PGND 14 VIN COL A COL B 2 15 L2 16 13 15k 12 15k 360 7 2.49k 1% Q2 3.3k 97.6k 1% 68 0.003F
1553 TA06
24V (20V TO 30V)
360
T1
+
47F
+
1F
3300pF
4 5
18k
L1: COILTRONICS CTX100-3 L2: 22nH TRACE INDUCTANCE, FERRITE BEAD OR INDUCTOR COILCRAFT B-07T TYPICAL Q1, Q2: ZETEX ZTX-853 Q3: 2N2222A T1: CTX02-13665-X1
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14 VIN COL A COL B PGND LT1533 RVSL 2 15 L2 16
T1
1N4148
L1 100H 12V 1N4148
OPTIONAL FOR L3 100H LOWEST RIPPLE
(
)
+
47F
+
47F
5V 13 15k
21.5k 1% 2.32k 1% 150k
1553 TA05
L1 100H MUR110
50V
OPTIONAL FOR 100H LOWEST RIPPLE
(
)
+
47F
+
47F
17
LT1533
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
A 10W Low Noise 5V to 12V Converter. Q1-Q2 Provide 5A Output Capacity While Preserving LT1533's Voltage Current Slew Control. Efficiency Is 68%. Higher Input Voltages Minimize Follower Loss, Boosting Efficiency Above 71%. See AN70 for Details
5V 0.05
+
4.7F 11 3 1500pF 4 5 18k 6 SHDN DUTY SYNC CT RT
14 VIN COL A COL B PGND LT1533 RVSL RCSL 10 VC GND 9 NFB 8 FB 2 FB1
15 FB2 16 13 10k 12 10k 7 2.49k 1% L2
0.01F
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1N4148 330 1N5817 T1 0.003F L1 300H 12V 5A L3 33H
Q1
+
4.7F Q2 0.05 330 1N4148
(
OPTIONAL FOR LOWEST RIPPLE
)
680 1N5817
+
100F
+
100F
21.5k 1%
1553 TA07
L1:COILTRONICS CTX300-4 L2:22nH TRACE INDUCTANCE, FERRITE BEAD OR INDUCTOR COILCRAFT B-07T TYPICAL L3:COILTRONICS CTX33-4 Q1, Q2:MOTOROLA D45C1 T1:COILTRONICS CTX02-13949-X1 FB1, FB2:FERRONICS FERRITE BEAD 21-110J
LT1533
PACKAGE DESCRIPTION
0.010 - 0.020 x 45 (0.254 - 0.508) 0.008 - 0.010 (0.203 - 0.254) 0 - 8 TYP
0.016 - 0.050 0.406 - 1.270 *DIMENSION DOES NOT INCLUDE MOLD FLASH. MOLD FLASH SHALL NOT EXCEED 0.006" (0.152mm) PER SIDE **DIMENSION DOES NOT INCLUDE INTERLEAD FLASH. INTERLEAD FLASH SHALL NOT EXCEED 0.010" (0.254mm) PER SIDE
Information furnished by Linear Technology Corporation is believed to be accurate and reliable. However, no responsibility is assumed for its use. Linear Technology Corporation makes no representation that the interconnection of its circuits as described herein will not infringe on existing patent rights.
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Dimensions in inches (millimeters) unless otherwise noted.
S Package 16-Lead Plastic Small Outline (Narrow 0.150)
(LTC DWG # 05-08-1610)
0.386 - 0.394* (9.804 - 10.008) 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9
0.228 - 0.244 (5.791 - 6.197)
0.150 - 0.157** (3.810 - 3.988)
1 0.053 - 0.069 (1.346 - 1.752)
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0.004 - 0.010 (0.101 - 0.254)
0.014 - 0.019 (0.355 - 0.483)
0.050 (1.270) TYP
S16 0695
19
LT1533
TYPICAL APPLICATION
10W Off-Line Power Supply Passes FCC Emission Requirements Without Filter Components
T1
0.1F AC LINE
+
1N4005 HV
HV 100F 400V
+
100k 5k 0.5W Q1 MPSA42 Q2 1k 1N759A 12V 10k 12V Q4 12V 10F 360k 12V 1k Q3 0.002F 1V FB VIN LT1533 4V SHDN 10M 1F 3k 1V 510 0.48V 470 75k HV 22k 3.9k RCSL RVSL CT COL A D
+
4.7F 8.2k
+
+
C2 1/2 LM393
+
1F 4V
C1 1/2 LM393
-
SCREENED AREA CONTAINS LETHAL HIGH VOLTAGES! USE CAUTION IN CONSTRUCTION AND TESTING!
POWER LIMIT
CURRENT LIMIT
L1 = COILTRONICS UP-4 L2 = COILCRAFT B07T NPN = 2N3904 UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED PNP = 2N3906 T1 = COILTRONICS CTX02-13978-X3
= 20CJQ045(I.R.) UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED = 1N4148
= AC (HOT) RETURN = OUTPUT COMMON
RELATED PARTS
PART NUMBER LT1129 LT1175 LT1377 LT1425 LTC(R)1436 LT1534 DESCRIPTION 700mA Micropower Low Dropout Regulator 500mA Negative Low Dropout Micropower Regulator 1MHz High Efficiency 1.5A Switching Regulator Isolated Flyback Switching Regulator High Efficiency Synchronous Switching Regulator Ultralow Noise 2A Switching Regulator COMMENTS 0.4V Dropout Voltage, Reverse Battery Protection Positive or Negative Shutdown Logic High Frequency, Small Inductor Excellent Regulation Without Transformer "Third Winding" Adaptive PowerTM Mode, Phase Locked Loop Ultralow Noise Regulator for Boost Topologies
Adaptive Power is a trademark of Linear Technology Corporation.
20
Linear Technology Corporation
1630 McCarthy Blvd., Milpitas, CA 95035-7417
(408)432-1900 q FAX: (408) 434-0507 q www.linear-tech.com
-
+
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!! GER !! DAN LTAGE O HV HIG
HV
1.6k 1W 0.001F 250V 0.001F 250V 1.6k 1W 360k 12V
L1 10H
5V 2A
+
220F
D Q5 Q6 IRF840 IRF840 S 1N5818 1N5818 S
1k Q7 0.002F Q8 10k 12V
COL B VC 330 RT 3300pF 15k PGND L2 22nH
470
+
1F 240k
4N28
0.15F
15F 12V
12V 470k
43k BAT-85 0.8 LT1431 COL RTOP RMID 0.48V 2.5V FGND SGND
1533 TA08
REF
1533f LT/TP 0598 5K * PRINTED IN USA
(c) LINEAR TECHNOLOGY CORPORATION 1997

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